Original Research••

Behavioural attitudes of three-wheeled taxi drivers towards mitigation of on-road air pollution in urban cities in Sri Lanka: a qualitative study from South Asia

Abstract

Objectives In recent years, urban areas across South Asia have experienced alarming levels of air pollution, primarily attributed to the rapid growth of motorised transportation. Three-wheeled taxis, commonly known as ‘tuk-tuks’, constitute a significant portion of the public transport system in Sri Lankan cities, making it crucial to understand the behavioural attitudes of their drivers in addressing on-road air pollution as they are key stakeholders in urban mobility and environmental sustainability. Therefore, this research aimed to contribute valuable insights into the behavioural attitudes of three-wheeled taxi drivers towards mitigation of on-road air pollution.

Methods We recruited 67 three-wheeled taxi drivers to participate in semi-structured focus group interviews and in-depth interviews through purposive sampling. The sample size was determined on the basis of data saturation. We collected data from on-site note-taking, audio recording and transcribing the interviews, and subjected them to content thematic analysis manually.

Result Behavioural attitudes for mitigation were mainly based on efforts to minimise on-road air pollution, perception of minimising on-road air pollution, knowledge, socio-demographic and legislative factors related to behaviour.

Conclusion Behavioural attitudes on mitigation were multi-faceted. To minimise the hazards as well as mitigate air pollution, educating and supporting them financially and by inducing a behavioural change are recommended to safeguard their health.

What is already known on this topic

  • Urban air pollution is a pressing issue in South Asian cities largely driven by transportation emissions, leading to many health implications. Among those vulnerable to such pollution, three-wheeled taxi (‘tuk-tuk’) drivers who provide an efficient and cost-effective service face a serious occupational hazard, owing to the distinct features of their vehicles and daily operations that escalate their risk. Although mitigation of on-road air pollution is shaped by sustainable behaviour change, three-wheeled taxi drivers remain a neglected occupational group, creating a notable gap in the understanding of their attitudes and behaviour towards prevention.

What this study adds

  • This study provides insights into the behavioural attitudes of three-wheeled taxi drivers towards the mitigation of on-road air pollution in Sri Lanka. It emphasises the unique characteristics of three-wheeled taxis, such as their capacity and operational flexibility, and how these factors influence drivers' attitudes and their actions. This study offers a nuanced understanding of the complexities involved in addressing urban air pollution in this low-income occupational group.

How this study might affect research, practice or policy

  • The findings enhance the understanding of the role of three-wheeled taxi drivers in mitigating air pollution, providing a foundation for targeted interventions and policy development in the context of sustainable urban transportation. This research lays the groundwork for initiatives that consider the unique needs and challenges faced by three-wheeled taxi drivers, ultimately contributing to a cleaner and healthier urban environment in Sri Lanka and beyond.

Introduction

Air pollution has emerged as a persistent global environmental challenge, impacting human health, ecosystems and the overall quality of life.1 Particularly in densely populated urban areas, the combustion of fossil fuels, mainly in the transportation sector, constitutes a major contributor to the deterioration of air quality. Among the diverse array of vehicles contributing to urban air pollution, three-wheeled taxis, popularly known as ‘tuk-tuks’, hold a prominent presence in many developing cities, serving as a crucial mode of transportation, especially in congested urban cities.2 However, the environmental implications of these vehicles, particularly in heavily congested areas, demand a closer examination of the behavioural attitudes of their drivers towards mitigating on-road air pollution.

Studies across various countries reveal that while three-wheeled taxis are integral to the urban fabric providing an economical means of transportation, they contribute significantly to local air pollution.3 Economically, many drivers operate under significant financial strain; they often cannot afford newer, cleaner vehicles or regular maintenance, which exacerbates air pollution.4 This economic pressure leads to risky behaviours such as postponed vehicle maintenance, which can significantly increase vehicular emissions. Moreover, the job satisfaction levels among these drivers are closely tied to their working conditions and earnings, which directly influence their engagement with sustainable practices.5

Colombo, the commercial capital of Sri Lanka, faces severe traffic congestion, particularly in the city and its adjacent regions.6 Commute times average 70 min per person per day, while the average vehicle speed within the city limits is a mere 12 km/hour. The combination of high population density, inadequate infrastructure and an escalating number of vehicles has led to persistent traffic congestion in the city, resulting in many environmental and socio-economic implications.7 At the core of this challenge are the three-wheeled taxis that navigate Colombo roads daily, playing a significant role in Sri Lanka’s urban transportation landscape.8 These vehicles, a ubiquitous sight in the city, are valued for their flexibility, affordability and convenience, making them the preferred choice for many urban residents and securing a notable market share in Sri Lanka’s transportation sector.8 The country is one of the biggest markets for three-wheeled taxis. From 2010 to 2016, the share of three-wheeled taxis owned by households in the country increased from 6.5% to 14.1%, and this growth is recorded as 188%.9 By 2016, the highest number of three-wheeled taxis registered were from the Western Province, which was one-third of the total. Despite their popularity, with a substantial portion of the population relying on three-wheeled taxis for daily commutes, their role in on-road air pollution has become a subject of increasing importance, particularly in the context of public health and environmental sustainability.10 11

While several studies have explored urban air pollution and its sources, a significant research gap exists in examining the behavioural attitudes of three-wheeled taxi drivers concerning the mitigation of on-road air pollution. These drivers, positioned at the intersection of economic livelihoods, transportation demands and environmental concerns, wield the potential to be both actors of change and recipients of its consequences.12 By investigating the perceptions, motivations, and challenges that shape their actions, this research sought to bridge this gap and shed light on the potential for sustainable behaviour change within this critical segment of the transportation sector. Through a comprehensive exploration of the behavioural attitudes of three-wheeled taxi drivers towards the mitigation of on-road air pollution in heavy traffic-congested areas in Colombo, this research aimed to contribute valuable insights to the fields of urban transportation, environmental management and sustainable behaviour change.

This study offers insights into how individual decisions and actions can either contribute to or mitigate on-road air pollution. Such insights are vital for formulating targeted interventions and policy measures that resonate with the daily realities of these drivers, thereby fostering a more sustainable and environmentally conscious transportation culture.

The findings of this research can serve as a foundational resource for policymakers, urban planners, environmental agencies and other relevant stakeholders involved in shaping transportation policies and interventions. The insights gained from this study can aid in designing and implementing initiatives that align with the experiences, challenges and motivations of three-wheeled taxi drivers. Such initiatives have the potential to establish a more eco-conscious transportation culture, thereby contributing to the reduction of on-road air pollution and associated health and environmental burdens in heavy traffic-congested urban areas like Colombo City.

Methods

A qualitative study based on focus group discussions (FGDs) and key informant interviews (KIIs) was conducted among three-wheeled taxi drivers aged 18 years and above with at least 1 year of experience as a taxi driver and operating within city limits of the district of Colombo, Sri Lanka. Being the commercial capital, the city includes the most traffic-congested areas in the country. Part-time three-wheeled taxi drivers and those experiencing physical or mental impairment that hindered effective communication were excluded.

The sample was selected using non-probability purposive sampling, in order to ensure representation of different categories of drivers (working for a taxi company, owning a taxi; full time, part-time), work experience (less than 2 years, more than 10 years, others), education (completed only primary education, completed school education, others with diplomas and above qualifications) and age (less than 25 years, over 60 years, others) in the FGDs and the main stakeholders, such as leaders of three-wheeled taxi associations and taxi owners, were in the KIIs. The selection was made through three-wheeled taxi drivers’ societies functioning within designated areas of the city. It was decided to include five to eight participants per FGD and continue with data collection until the information reached a saturation point.13

For facilitating the FGD/KIIs, a moderator guide14 was used, which was prepared based on the inputs following a thorough literature survey and expert opinion from consultant community physicians, police officers and officials from the Department of Motor Traffic. It was initially developed in the English language, later translated into local languages and pre-tested among five three-wheeled taxi drivers operating outside the selected study area.

Prior to the KII and FGDs, informed written consent was obtained from each participant. Participants in this study did not receive any rewards or funds for their involvement. The discussions and interviews were held at the participants’ convenience in a neutral setting and time, with minimal disturbances to their work. The discussions and interviews were conducted in the local languages by the principal investigator (PI) accompanied by two trained note-takers. Throughout the sessions, every participant had the opportunity to express their opinions without interference. Using an audio voice recorder, discussions were recorded, while the note-takers used a template to document key points including verbal and non-verbal responses. The non-verbal responses were carefully documented alongside the verbal responses in field notes. In subsequent analysis, researchers used these non-verbal cues to enrich the interpretation of data, by systematically reviewing and integrating both verbal and non-verbal data to identify themes, patterns and insights relevant to the study objectives. The FGDs typically lasted about 1–1½ hours, and the KIIs were approximately 40–70 min. At the end of each session, the moderator summarised the discussion which was provided to the interviewee for validation and clarification and answered all questions that arose during the discussion.

Data analysis

Abridged transcripts from the audio recorded and noted-down data were coded and subjected to content thematic analysis manually. Initially, verbatim transcriptions from audio recordings were done in local languages and later translated into English. Depending on the content, narratives and non-verbal expressions, the notes and recordings were analysed, from which different themes, subthemes and categories were identified.

Transcripts were reviewed by individuals other than the interviewers. Codes were developed based on recurring themes, concepts or topics identified within the transcripts. This involved identifying meaningful units of data, assigning descriptive labels and categorising similar responses into thematic groups. The coding process was iterative, with codes being refined and revised as new insights emerged. Coded segments were grouped together based on their thematic relevance, forming larger categories or themes and labelled. To ensure the reliability and validity of the analysis, both researchers independently coded a subset of transcripts.

Patient and public involvement statement

In this study, participants and the public were involved in the planning stages, specifically in deciding the times and places for discussions. They also accompanied the researchers in inviting study participants to the study. However, the public was not involved in the design, conduct, reporting or dissemination plans of the research, primarily due to the nature and scope of the study, which directly focused on the behavioural attitudes related to three-wheeled taxi drivers.

Results

In total, 9 FGDs (n=55) and 12 in-depth interviews were conducted until the data saturation point was reached. The demographic and socio-economic profile of the sample is presented in table 1. The sample exclusively consisted of men, reflecting the typical composition of three-wheeled taxi drivers in operation in Sri Lanka.

Table 1
|
Basic characteristics of the sample of three-wheeled taxi drivers (N=67)

Behavioural attitudes towards minimising on-road air pollution

Results are presented under four main themes and some of the contents are described under each theme (table 2).

Table 2
|
Main themes identified using focal group discussions and key informant interviews

Effort to minimise on-road air pollution

Despite the fact that air pollution and its adverse consequences are important concerns in the world, it was found to be the least important among three-wheeled taxi drivers. Almost all of them agreed with the fact that they had never thought of making an effort to mitigate air pollution caused by their own vehicles.

I am fully aware that vehicular smoke is not good for the air we breathe. We have never used cheap mixed oil or petrol for our vehicles, we do our level best to maintain the vehicle properly, but honestly speaking, I have never thought about the air pollution and ways of reducing it.

The majority believed that it was important to consider minimising air pollution generated by their vehicles; however, none could give a strong assurance that they would implement such mitigative action in the future.

Let’s see, these things are easier said than done, besides, if the whole country is at fault, why only target us? If and when we come to the point the whole country is functioning properly, we will also do so.

A few participants strongly disagreed even to consider discussing the importance of vehicular air pollution as well as efforts to minimise it. One driver supported this opinion by saying:

Air pollution may be a problem, but if we spend time thinking about it, we may not be able to do our job. Why are we told about this, people going in big vehicles are responsible for many wrong doings. We have better things to do.

Perceptions on minimising on-road air pollution

They had diverse perceptions on minimising on-road air pollution. Some stated that they were not interested at all in this matter. Those who perceived it as having some importance also found it uninteresting to talk about on-road air pollution, where three such participants left in the middle of the discussion. A majority of participants blamed others and sectors for building up polluted air on the road, while some of them accused the government and politicians.

Would it make a difference if only I avoid the traffic and abide by the rules, when all others break the rules? Then the government should be told to impose laws unbiased for every citizen. After that, we too will abide by the law.

Although the number was low, a few participants genuinely admitted to taking measures for minimising on-road air pollution as a social responsibility and admired people who are trying to do so.

It is important to know about air pollution. If we are doing something wrong, we should correct ourselves. It is our responsibility. We should make sure that our children have a country in which they can breathe freely.

Some participants were well aware of the consequences of on-road air pollution and methods to minimise it, through their own experience as well as of their family members.

I’m a wheezer, so I always avoid smoke and polluted roads. I maintain my vehicle, so that it does not emit any smoke.

The majority owned the vehicle they drove, while others were drivers of hired vehicles. Collectively, they claimed that their perception of maintenance and safety of the vehicle depends on the ownership of the vehicle.

It is like this, if the driver of the vehicle is the owner himself, he will maintain it well. If it is a rented vehicle, both owner and the driver would not take care of it.

Some highlighted that the condition (wear and tear) of the vehicle is a determining factor for adopting correct maintenance of vehicles and good driving habits other than their vehicle ownership.

I usually change my vehicle every five years. But if you properly maintain a three-wheeled taxi, you can use it even for 15 to 20 years. The fact is that older the vehicle becomes, the less trouble you take to maintain it properly. Same reason why frequent break downs occur when vehicles get older.

The age of the vehicle was also found to be a determining factor in vehicular emissions, as some old vehicles have a higher tendency to run on adulterated fuel.

The bus owners are the ones who use adulterated fuel – fuel mixed with other oils, especially the buses doing long distance trips. When it comes to three wheeled taxis, the old diesel ones are the same. Usually, the owners of new taxis do not use inferior, adulterated fuel for their vehicles.

Knowledge related behavioural attitudes

Even though most participants were aware of some characteristics of air pollution, almost all were unable to provide any comprehensive explanations of on-road air pollution. Although they were aware of the fact that vehicular emission can cause on-road air pollution, their knowledge of their mechanism was at a very low level.

I’m just a taxi driver. I know that the vehicle smoke is not good for the environment as it pollutes the air we breathe, but I have no idea how I could reduce air pollution.

Some participants admitted that despite being aware of on-road air pollution, they had no awareness of the magnitude of the problem. They believe that air pollution can only be caused by using inferior quality fuel and that air pollution is not that high in Sri Lanka.

I am aware that vehicle emission is not good for our health. I used to think it was mainly due to petrol we use. Did not know that it is such a big issue and was not aware that this problem can cause so many health hazards.

A few participants claimed that they do not have proper channels to obtain information on on-road air pollution, while others found fault with the government for this.

There is no proper source to educate us on these matters. We get information from certain individuals in society. We do not know if they are true or false. The government does not have a proper mechanism to educate us.

In contrast, some stated that it is not a priority and that they do not have time to read or retrieve information about air pollution due to their busy lives. This was also highlighted as a reason for not paying enough attention to minimising on-road air pollution.

We do this job to earn a living. We do everything to achieve the daily target. There is no time to talk or read about air pollution. We work the whole day and when we get a break, we sleep.

However, when asked if they were willing to obtain information if there was a proper channel, they were not very positive and ended the discussion.

Some had misbeliefs on on-road air pollution and methods of minimising vehicular emissions. Most of their beliefs were related to oils and fuel they used and their driving techniques.

Everyone aims for the maximum profit out of what they spend. The product should be both cheap and of good quality. Most of the time, we rely on the people selling these products for information. There have been instances where people have lied and given us the inferior quality products.

Socio-demographic factors related to behavioural attitudes

All except nine participants had no income source other than as a taxi driver, thus had to manage all their expenses of the families, for children’s education, diseases they already have and loan payments, etc, from their earnings. Therefore, most of them were keen on doing more trips per day and spent less money even on the maintenance of their vehicle.

It’s not about whether you service the three-wheeler on time or not, or use good quality oil or avoid traffic or not, but paying the “finance” on time or not is what matters most. If not, they will take away the vehicle. Everything is money.

Those who had another occupation stated that they could afford maintenance of their three-wheeled taxi.

When I get off from work, I go on hires. I try to avoid traffic as much as possible and go on long distance trips. I try to abide by the rules because if something happens, it will be a problem for my job as well.

Although not seen across the sample, it was observed that as the educational qualifications of the drivers increased, there was a tendency to possess (or at least to consider) more positive behavioural attitudes on minimising on-road air pollution.

Age was another fact—the older the individual and the vehicle were, the lesser the attention they paid to the maintenance of the vehicle. Younger drivers were more concerned about the appearance of the vehicle compared with older drivers who were more law-abiding and concerned about safety.

At the beginning, everyone maintains the vehicle well especially the youngsters. As time goes, they are neither concerned about the vehicle nor themselves. But I must say youngsters these days have no patience; they try to squeeze in and get ahead of the race. We, as elders must think about safety more, because the police is after the older ones.

Another observation was on the influence of the society they live in with regard to the maintenance of their vehicles.

One person living in a slum area stated:

We use our vehicles the way we want to. No one would be concerned about how we do the service or if we use genuine parts. We do what suits us when maintaining the vehicle and going about our work. We don’t have any problem with that.

A person who was living in a relatively wealthy neighbourhood stated:

This is the only vehicle we have; we depend on this from transporting kids to school to earning a living. Therefore, the vehicle is maintained to the best of my ability. I cannot sell it to someone else if it is not of good condition. I try to drive without any accidents or fines from the police.

The views of family members were also found to influence the decision taken by the vehicle owner on maintenance and minimising on-road air pollution, especially if they were of a higher educational level and social status; they were more likely to abide by the law and be positive on minimising air pollution.

My kids advise me to do this and that, not everything but most things they say are true. Whatever said and done, at the end of the day, we have to think of how to earn a living.

Legislative factors related to behavioural attitudes

Almost all agreed that the presence of strong rules and regulations made them adhere to procedures, regardless of how difficult they were. Their attitude was that anyone would abide by the law and maintain vehicle emission at the lowest possible level, if it was mandatory by the law or if such maintenance was assessed repeatedly.

If it is the law, we have to abide by it. Police officers are very keen on catching us, the poor people. Honestly speaking, if the police is around, we will drive slowly and maintain lane rules. On the other hand, if we follow all rules all the time, we will get only one hire per day.

Despite being aware that measures that reduce vehicular emissions are already included in the existing laws, all agreed that there are situations where three-wheeled taxi drivers would have to break the rules. The reasons given were interrelated—the lack of specific rules and regulations and weaknesses of the existing rules.

VET (Vehicular Emission Test) test is only done annually. After that, they may have excess smoke emission from their vehicles, but no one will catch them.

Sometimes they do half a service thinking of only the instant profit. On the other hand, it is hard to find if these vehicles are properly maintained or not. Individuals can do what they like.

There was a greater possibility of breaking rules whenever they were not being observed in areas without police officers.

It is not possible to do this job without squeezing through the traffic and somehow moving ahead. Everyone jumps into a taxi to go quickly. Even if we do only correct things during the whole journey, and with just one mistake, the police will catch us for that one mistake. So, if the police are there, we maintain discipline.

Few participants brought to light the practice of making false certificates and changing the vehicular conditions after obtaining the relevant certificate, which are illegal procedures. They further highlighted that the police officers are biased and that checking only the availability of documents was a weakness.

We are the only ones who abide by the law. The emission test certificate can be taken by illegal means. People who own big vehicles do it frequently, but that practice is not commonly seen among auto drivers.

Discussion

The substantial number of three-wheeled taxis in Asian nations presents notable challenges related to air quality, public health and road safety.15 16 This qualitative study reveals a complex interplay of factors influencing three-wheeled taxi drivers' behavioural attitudes towards mitigating on-road air pollution. The diverse range of responses indicates a strong need for tailored interventions to address these multifaceted challenges.

In this study, it was observed that all drivers encountered and subsequently selected were male. This gender skew reflects the composition of the three-wheeled taxi driver population in Sri Lanka. Several factors contribute to the predominance of male drivers in this profession, such as security concerns, particularly during night-time operations, societal norms and cultural expectations that dictate driving a three-wheeled taxi as a male-dominated occupation.17 This absence of females highlights the broader gender dynamics within the community of three-wheeled taxi drivers, which could in turn influence the behavioural attitudes on mitigation practices of air pollution.

One of the key challenges posed in the discussion on creating a ‘more sustainable society’ is the concern of air pollution, especially the pollution produced by transportation activities. A crucial barrier towards its implementation involves changing how people typically use transportation. This challenge arises because of how individuals perceive the dangers posed by pollution from traffic. Additionally, a crucial step towards making a change is to carefully look at how people currently handle pollution risks and the strategies they employ to manage or justify their current travel habits.18 The findings emphasise the importance of raising awareness and providing accurate information through accessible channels, considering the drivers' knowledge gaps and sources of misinformation. Efforts should also focus on addressing socio-economic constraints that hinder pollution mitigation actions, such as financial burdens and expenses. While the majority of drivers recognise the importance of reducing pollution, their ability and willingness to take action are influenced by practical challenges, societal dynamics and perceptions of shared responsibility.19

Older drivers usually have a tendency to prioritise safety and regulatory compliance, whereas younger counterparts may prioritise the appearance of their vehicles. Additionally, individuals with higher educational qualifications may often demonstrate greater environmental awareness. Nevertheless, family dynamics, especially the educational level of family members, may also significantly impact drivers' decisions regarding vehicle maintenance and pollution minimisation efforts. These disparities among three-wheeled taxi drivers highlight the complex balance between economic necessity and environmental awareness in shaping their behavioural attitudes towards the mitigation of air pollution. Despite global recognition of air pollution, immediate financial obligations often take precedence over environmental considerations for these drivers. Given their reliance on taxi income, maximising earnings and minimising expenses therefore become paramount, posing a challenge to instigating behavioural change.20 Addressing this challenge requires raising awareness about environmental impacts and providing viable economic alternatives. Tailored interventions must balance financial viability with environmental stewardship to foster a collective commitment to mitigate on-road air pollution and promote sustainable transportation practices.21

The study further highlights the importance of targeted policy interventions that address weaknesses in existing regulations and enforcement mechanisms. This could involve the development of comprehensive and specific rules related to emissions, encompassing compliance and enforcement initiatives, along with efficient testing methods and on-the-spot checks.15 In this regard, there is a pressing need for policies aimed at raising awareness and providing accurate information on the environmental impact of vehicular emissions. Such policies should be implemented through accessible channels, taking into account the drivers' knowledge gaps and sources of misinformation. Additionally, efforts should be made to address the financial constraints faced by taxi drivers through targeted interventions such as financial support or tax incentives for adopting cleaner technologies.22 Furthermore, policy interventions should focus on strengthening the existing regulations and enforcement mechanisms related to emissions such as efficient testing methods. Moreover, policies aimed at promoting a sense of social responsibility and community engagement can play a vital role in encouraging drivers to take proactive steps towards pollution mitigation. Through these policy priorities, policymakers can facilitate meaningful advancements towards creating a more sustainable and environmentally conscious transportation system.

Embracing emerging technologies tailored to the specific needs of taxi drivers holds promise for fostering a positive shift in their attitudes towards air pollution concerns. The emerging technologies possess the potential to elevate driving performance, enhance safety measures and reduce the release of air pollutants. The introduction of cost-effective technologies tailored to the requirements of taxi drivers is anticipated22 through the integration of advanced vehicle technologies, such as electric and hybrid powertrains, into three-wheeled taxis.3 Furthermore, advancements in vehicle design, including aerodynamics and lightweight materials, can enhance fuel efficiency and minimise pollutant emissions during operation. These technological innovations aligned with the broader goal of creating a more sustainable transportation system will lead to greater awareness and behavioural changes among drivers. However, it should also be noted that such adoption of emerging technologies may face practical challenges, such as affordability, infrastructure requirements and regulatory frameworks. Therefore, it is essential to consider the feasibility and scalability of these interventions prior to widespread adoption.21

In addition, promoting a sense of social responsibility and community engagement could encourage drivers to take proactive steps towards pollution mitigation. Collaborative efforts involving families, peers and educational institutions can play a vital role in influencing drivers' attitudes and actions.

In this study, the methodological constraints, such as the exclusion of part-time drivers and those experiencing physical impairments may have omitted valuable perspectives. While efforts were made to capture diverse perspectives through FGD and KII, the study primarily focused on the attitudes and behaviours of three-wheeled taxi drivers, potentially overlooking the perspectives of other stakeholders, such as passengers, regulatory authorities and environmental experts. Moreover, the reliance on manual data analysis without the use of specialised software may have introduced subjectivity and interpretation biases into the analysis process.

Conclusion

This study provides valuable insights into the behavioural attitudes of three-wheeled taxi drivers towards on-road air pollution mitigation. None of the drivers pro-actively practised any measure to minimise on-road air pollution; however, some were willing to do so in the future despite the others ignoring it as an important initiative. Using standard fuel (non-adulterated fuel) was identified as a crucial issue that needs to be addressed immediately to reduce on-road air pollution, with only a few maintaining their vehicles properly. Out of the factors that affect behavioural attitudes towards minimising on-road air pollution, the most important factors were socio-demographic factors, economic status and the existence of robust rules and regulations. The identified themes and sub-themes collectively highlight the need for a holistic approach that addresses knowledge gaps, socio-economic challenges and regulatory shortcomings to effectively promote pollution reduction actions among this specific group of drivers.

Future studies on this topic may benefit from incorporating a broader range of stakeholders to gain a comprehensive understanding of the issue. Further, comparative studies across different urban contexts may offer transferable lessons for addressing on-road air pollution effectively. Studies should investigate the viability of emerging technologies like electric three-wheeled taxis and their effect on reducing on-road air pollution and behavioural interventions, and on promoting eco-friendly driving practices. Research assessing the contribution of three-wheeled taxis to climate change and exploring decarbonisation strategies could inform sustainable transportation policies.

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